Arabic Musical Instruments
Instruments
The traditional Arabic musical ensemble has centered for centuries on a small group of instruments known as the takht (تخت — literally “bed” or “platform,” referring to the low raised platform on which musicians sat). The takht typically comprised oud, qanun, nay, violin, and riqq — rarely more than five or six players. In the 20th century this expanded into large orchestras combining Arabic and Western instruments. Each Arabic instrument has a distinctive voice, history, and role in the ensemble.
Plucked String Instruments
Oud (عود)
The oud is the instrument most closely identified with Arabic music — the “king of instruments” (sultan al-alat). A short-neck, fretless lute with 11 strings (in the Arabic tuning: 5 double-course strings plus one single bass string), the oud’s lack of frets enables the full range of microtonal expression. Its warm, resonant tone is produced by a plectrum (risha, or “feather”) and amplified by its large, deep pear-shaped body.
The oud’s lineage traces to the ancient Mesopotamian lute. The Arabic oud was introduced to Europe by the Moors, where it became the lute — the English word “lute” derives from the Arabic al-‘ud, meaning “the wood.” The Arabic oud remains foundational today in Egypt, Iraq, Syria, and across the global diaspora.
The standard Arabic tuning (from lowest to highest) is: C2–F2–A2–D3–G3–C4 (with variations by region and school). Notable players include Farid al-Atrash, Munir Bashir, Riyad al-Sunbati, Simon Shaheen, Naseer Shamma, and Marcel Khalife.
Buzuq (بزق)
A long-neck lute with moveable frets, used primarily in folk and popular music in the Levant (Syria, Lebanon). The buzuq produces a bright, cutting sound and is related to the Turkish saz. It is particularly associated with the music of the Levantine countryside and with the popular music traditions of Lebanon.
Qanun (قانون)
A large, flat trapezoidal zither with 78–81 strings in triple courses, plucked with two plectra worn on the index fingers. The qanun’s most remarkable feature is its mandal system — small metal levers underneath each course that can be flipped during performance to raise or lower individual string courses by a quarter tone, allowing real-time microtonal adjustment. This makes the qanun one of the most flexible instruments in Arabic music for maqam performance. The qanun produces a rich, brilliant cascade of tone that can fill a concert hall.
Wind Instruments
Nay (ناي)
An end-blown flute made of a single length of reed cane, with 6 finger holes and 1 thumb hole. The nay is one of the oldest instruments in human history — depicted in ancient Egyptian tomb paintings from approximately 5,000 years ago. Its breathy, haunting tone is produced by directing air across the top of the open tube — a technique that requires years to master. The nay is deeply associated with Sufi spiritual practice, particularly through the poetry of Rumi, who used the nay as a metaphor for the soul’s separation from God.
The nay produces microtones through embouchure adjustments and half-hole fingering, making it naturally suited to all maqamat. Nays are made in sets in different keys to cover the full range of maqamat. The Egyptian nay typically has 6 holes; some regional varieties have 7.
Arghul (أرغول)
A double-pipe instrument — one pipe carries the melody while the other provides a continuous drone. Used in folk music of Egypt and the Levant, particularly associated with pastoral and rural traditions.
Mizmar (مزمار)
A double-reed oboe used in folk and ceremonial music. The Egyptian mizmar is associated with the vibrant folklore tradition of Upper Egypt (Sa’id), where it accompanies horse dancing, stick fighting, and wedding celebrations.
Bowed String Instruments
Rabab (رباب)
The rabab is one of the oldest bowed instruments in the world, the ancestor of the European fiddle. In Arabic tradition, two main forms exist. The rabab sha’ri (poet’s rabab) is a simple spike fiddle with one or two strings, used by folk poets (sha’ir) to accompany their recitation — a tradition still alive in some rural areas. The rabab al-mutrabi (entertainer’s rabab) is a more refined version used in ensemble music.
Kamanja / Violin (كمنجة)
The Western violin was introduced into Arabic music in Egypt in the mid-19th century and was enthusiastically adopted. Played unfretted in Arabic style (often held against the chest rather than under the chin in some folk traditions), it produces all microtonal intervals naturally. Today the violin is a full member of the Arabic orchestra and takht.
Arabic violin style is characterized by expressive portamento (sliding between pitches), wide vibrato, and idiomatic maqam phrasing that differs fundamentally from Western classical violin technique. The violin’s adoption was one of the most successful cases of cross-cultural instrument borrowing in music history.
Percussion Instruments
Riqq (رق)
The riqq is the principal timekeeping instrument of classical Arabic music — a small tambourine (approximately 20–25 cm diameter) with a single goatskin head and five pairs of small brass cymbal sets. It is played with a combination of finger rolls, flicks, and shakes that produce an extraordinary range of timbres — from sharp metallic attacks to deep resonant bass tones.
A master riqq player can play the entire iqa’ with subtle expressive variation, adding fills, accents, and dynamic shading that respond to the melody and the energy of the performance. The riqq appears in the Egyptian takht ensemble and is associated with refinement and sophistication.
Darabukka / Tabla (دربكة / طبلة)
The darabukka is a goblet-shaped drum, open at the bottom, made of ceramic, wood, or metal with a single skin or synthetic head. It is the most widely distributed percussion instrument in the Arab world and is the primary drum in folk, popular, and dance music contexts. Distinguished from the riqq by its deeper sound and greater dynamic range, the darabukka is less formal than the riqq in classical contexts but equally important in the broader musical landscape.
Duff / Tar (دف)
Large frame drums without cymbals. Used in Sufi devotional music (dhikr), wedding ceremonies, and folk contexts. The duff’s deep, resonant tone is associated with spiritual practice and communal celebration.
Naqqarat (نقارات)
Small paired ceramic kettledrums; used in military, ceremonial, and folk contexts. Historically associated with courtly and ceremonial occasions.
The Arabic Orchestra (Firqa)
The development of the large Arabic orchestra in Egypt in the 1930s–50s represents one of the most significant transformations in Arabic music history. Pioneered by composers like Muhammad Abd al-Wahhab and institutional forces like the Egyptian Radio, this expanded the takht (5–6 players) into a firqa (25–50 players) combining Arabic instruments — oud, qanun, nay — with sections of Western strings (violins, cellos, double basses), winds, and sometimes brass.
This hybrid ensemble became the dominant vehicle for Arabic art music from the 1940s onward and is associated with the golden age of Arabic song — the era of Umm Kulthum, Farid al-Atrash, and Abd al-Halim Hafez. The large orchestra provided a richer, more sonorous backdrop for the solo singer while maintaining the maqam framework as the basis of composition and improvisation. The integration of Western orchestral instruments did not replace the traditional Arabic instruments but rather surrounded them with a larger palette of color and volume.
Instruments الآلات الموسيقية
The Arabic music tradition has cultivated a distinctive family of instruments over more than a millennium. These instruments are chosen and played in ways that honor the microtonal subtleties of maqam music and the nuanced art of taqsim — many featuring fretless necks or movable tuning mechanisms to produce the quarter-tones central to the tradition.
From the fretless oud to the microtonal mandals of the qanun, each instrument represents centuries of refinement in pursuit of expressive beauty. The ensemble itself — the takht — is a carefully balanced acoustic chamber designed for intimate, interactive music-making.
Oud العود
The “King of Arabic Instruments”
Chordophone
A short-necked fretless lute with 11 strings in 5 double courses plus a single bass string. Tuned C–F–A–D–G–C (low to high). The pear-shaped body is built from bent wood staves. Played with a risha (plectrum), it is the central instrument of Arabic classical music. Taqsim on oud is considered the highest form of melodic improvisation.
Qanun القانون
The “Law-Giver” of Arabic Music
Chordophone
A flat trapezoidal zither with 78 strings in 26 triple courses. Rests on the lap or a table and is plucked with two plectra attached to index fingers. Its unique system of small brass levers (mandal/urab) on each course allows instant microtonal adjustment, making it uniquely suited to maqam music.
Nay ناي
The “Breath of the Soul”
Aerophone
An open-ended reed flute and one of the oldest instruments in the world (3000+ BCE). Made from a hollow reed with 6 finger holes and 1 thumb hole. Played by blowing obliquely across the open top. Available in multiple keys. Capable of extreme expressive nuance including quarter-tones via embouchure. Central to Sufi music.
Violin الكمان
The “Voice of the Arabic Ensemble”
Chordophone
Adopted from European music in the 19th century and completely integrated into Arabic practice. Often played with altered tuning (G–D–G–D) and without a chin rest in some traditions. Fully capable of producing all microtonal intervals. Became the most common melody instrument in Arabic music by the 20th century.
Rabab الرباب
Ancestor of the Modern Violin
Chordophone
A spike fiddle with one or two strings, played vertically with a horsehair bow. One of the oldest bowed instruments in the world. Still used in Bedouin, folk, and religious music. The traditional accompaniment for epic oral poetry such as the Sirat Bani Hilal.
Buzuq البزق
Long-Necked Fretted Lute
Chordophone
A long-necked lute with movable frets allowing microtonal adjustment. Used especially in Levantine music and associated with storytelling and folk traditions. Produces a bright, buzzing timbre distinctive from the oud.
Mizmar المزمار
Double-Reed Oboe
Aerophone
A cylindrical bore instrument with a conical bell, played with circular breathing. Produces a bright, piercing sound essential in ceremonial, folkloric, and dance music. Often played in pairs during festive occasions and Egyptian zaffa (wedding processions).
Arghul الأرغول
Egyptian Double-Pipe
Aerophone
One pipe for melody, one for drone, both made from reed. Of ancient origin — found depicted in Egyptian tombs. Still played in Upper Egypt. The distinctive drone creates a hypnotic, meditative quality unlike any other instrument.
Doumbek / Tabla الدمبك / الطبلة
The Essential Arabic Drum
Membranophone
A goblet-shaped drum with a metal or ceramic body and a synthetic or fish-skin head. Played with hands and fingers producing Dum (deep), Tek (sharp), Ka (soft) strokes. The rhythmic backbone of every Arabic ensemble — indispensable in all genres from classical to pop.
Riq الرق
Arabic Tambourine
Membranophone
A small frame drum with five pairs of brass cymbals. Played with complex finger rolls and techniques. Equal parts drum and jingle percussion. The timekeeper of the classical takht ensemble, capable of extraordinary virtuosity and subtle rhythmic articulation.
Duff الدف
Large Frame Drum
Membranophone
Larger and deeper than the riq, without cymbals. Strongly associated with Sufi music and spiritual ceremonies. Its deep, resonant tone creates a grounding pulse in devotional contexts. Also used extensively in folk music across the Arab world.
Sagat / Zills الصاجات
Finger Cymbals
Idiophone
Small brass cymbals attached to thumb and middle finger. Used by dancers and musicians to mark subdivisions within the iqa’. Closely associated with raqs sharqi (belly dance) and folk performance contexts.
The Classical Takht (تخت)
The traditional Arabic chamber ensemble is called the Takht. This intimate ensemble is the ideal vehicle for classical Arabic music, allowing each instrument to be heard clearly and enabling the interactive, conversational style that defines the tradition.
Modern Arabic orchestras (firqa) expanded this to include full string sections, winds, and percussion — as pioneered by Muhammad Abd al-Wahhab and others in the mid-20th century.
Arabic Music Theory Archive